Historical Change in Midlife Development From a Cross-National Perspective
Middle-aged adults (ages 40-65) form the backbone of society by comprising most of the workforce and constituting family leadership through bridging younger and older generations. Recent conceptual models of midlife development have discussed how midlife is defined by four key features. First, middle-aged adults juggle multiple roles by balancing work, family, community, and social commitments. Second, they face significant life transitions in their career (e.g., advancement, retirement planning), family (e.g., divorce, remarriage, [grand]parenthood), and health (e.g., chronic illness incidence). Third, midlife offers opportunities and involves gains in crystallized cognitive abilities, control beliefs, social relationship quality, and well-being. Fourth, given the integral role that middle-aged adults play in society and family, they are vulnerable to stressors and challenges. The significance of midlife is further exemplified by empirical evidence demonstrating that better midlife health foreshadows better health and finances in old age.
Middle-aged adults (ages 40-65) form the backbone of society by comprising most of the workforce and constituting family leadership through bridging younger and older generations. Recent conceptual models of midlife development have discussed how midlife is defined by four key features. First, middle-aged adults juggle multiple roles by balancing work, family, community, and social commitments. Second, they face significant life transitions in their career (e.g., advancement, retirement planning), family (e.g., divorce, remarriage, [grand]parenthood), and health (e.g., chronic illness incidence). Third, midlife offers opportunities and involves gains in crystallized cognitive abilities, control beliefs, social relationship quality, and well-being. Fourth, given the integral role that middle-aged adults play in society and family, they are vulnerable to stressors and challenges. The significance of midlife is further exemplified by empirical evidence demonstrating that better midlife health foreshadows better health and finances in old age.
Recent empirical evidence reveals a troubling trend: large segments of U.S. middle-aged adults are exhibiting poorer cognitive, mental, and physical health than in the past and this is largely confined to the U.S. and not transpiring in peer nations. My research documents these historical changes in midlife cognitive, mental, and physical health, examining not just the individual impact but the broader societal implications. Using longitudinal panel surveys from around the World, my colleagues and I have documented that later-born cohorts of middle-aged adults in the U.S. have shown elevations in loneliness and depressive symptoms and declines in episodic memory and physical health, compared to earlier-born cohorts, and this pattern is largely confined to the U.S. and not transpiring in peer nations.
These publications provide an overview of key findings arising from this project:
Infurna, F. J., Cruz-Carrillo, Y., Dey, N. E. Y., Wettstein, M., Grimm, K. J., Lachman, M. E., & Gerstorf, D. (in press). Uncovering mechanisms underlying historical change in midlife loneliness across the United States and Europe: A focus on physical activity, health conditions, and wealth. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological and Social Sciences, gbaf207.
Gonzalez Avilés, T., Infurna, F. J., Dey, N. E. Y., Cruz-Carrillo, Y., Grimm, K. J., Lachman, M. E., & Gerstorf, D. (2025). Midlife blues: A life span perspective on midlife depressive symptoms. Psychology and Aging, 40, 685-700.
Infurna, F. J., Dey, N. E. Y., Gonzalez Avilés, T., Grimm, K. J., Lachman, M. E. & Gerstorf, D. (2025). Loneliness in midlife: Historical increases and elevated levels in the United States compared with Europe. American Psychologist, 80, 744-756.
Wettstein, M., Infurna, F. J., Dey, N. E. Y., Cruz-Carrillo, Y., Grimm, K. J., Lachman, M. E., & Gerstorf, D. (2025). Trajectories of episodic memory in midlife: Historical change from a cross-country perspective. Psychology and Aging, 40, 197-217.
Pathways to Character
The notion that adversities, challenges, or failures that occur during the course of one’s life have the potential to facilitate positive change or personal growth has had significant currency. However, a central limitation of the research examining the possibility for growth and resilience has been whether individuals’ reporting of growth translates into meaningful character change. This project features a prospective longitudinal design of repeated assessments from individuals in midlife over a period of two years to examine the nature of growth and resilience following adversity. Participants were assessed monthly for a period of two years on a wide range of measures, including character strengths, health, well-being, and life events.
The illumination of whether, how, and for whom adversity leads to character growth are the central objectives of this empirical project. The question of whether adversity leads to character growth focuses on the domains in which growth is most likely to manifest, and whether it differs by adversity; how refers to the processes through which character growth manifests following adversity (e.g., meaning-making); who focuses on individual characteristics that may increase or decrease the likelihood of experiencing growth following adversity (e.g., social support).
These publications provide an overview of key findings arising from this project:
Dey, N. E. Y., Infurna, F. J., & Grimm, K. J. (in press). Does religiosity/spirituality promote positive well-being for middle-aged adults in the context of monthly adversity? International Journal of Behavioral Development.
Infurna, F. J., Staben, O. E., Gardner, M. J., Grimm, K. J., & Luthar, S. S. (2023). The accumulation of adversity in midlife: Effects on depressive symptoms, life satisfaction and character strengths. Psychology and Aging, 38, 230-246.
Infurna, F. J., Luthar, S. S., & Grimm, K. J. (2022). Lifetime adversity in the context of monthly adversity and psychological well-being in midlife: Evidence of cumulative disadvantage, but not steeling effects of lifetime adversity. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 77, 1394-1405.
Infurna, F. J., Luthar, S. S., & Grimm, K. J. (2022) Investigating post-traumatic growth in midlife using an intensive longitudinal research design: Post-traumatic growth is not as prevalent as previously considered. European Journal of Personality, 36, 576-596.
These publications provide an overview of key findings arising from this project:
Infurna, F. J., Cruz-Carrillo, Y., Dey, N. E. Y., Wettstein, M., Grimm, K. J., Lachman, M. E., & Gerstorf, D. (in press). Uncovering mechanisms underlying historical change in midlife loneliness across the United States and Europe: A focus on physical activity, health conditions, and wealth. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological and Social Sciences, gbaf207.
Gonzalez Avilés, T., Infurna, F. J., Dey, N. E. Y., Cruz-Carrillo, Y., Grimm, K. J., Lachman, M. E., & Gerstorf, D. (2025). Midlife blues: A life span perspective on midlife depressive symptoms. Psychology and Aging, 40, 685-700.
Infurna, F. J., Dey, N. E. Y., Gonzalez Avilés, T., Grimm, K. J., Lachman, M. E. & Gerstorf, D. (2025). Loneliness in midlife: Historical increases and elevated levels in the United States compared with Europe. American Psychologist, 80, 744-756.
Wettstein, M., Infurna, F. J., Dey, N. E. Y., Cruz-Carrillo, Y., Grimm, K. J., Lachman, M. E., & Gerstorf, D. (2025). Trajectories of episodic memory in midlife: Historical change from a cross-country perspective. Psychology and Aging, 40, 197-217.
Pathways to Character
The notion that adversities, challenges, or failures that occur during the course of one’s life have the potential to facilitate positive change or personal growth has had significant currency. However, a central limitation of the research examining the possibility for growth and resilience has been whether individuals’ reporting of growth translates into meaningful character change. This project features a prospective longitudinal design of repeated assessments from individuals in midlife over a period of two years to examine the nature of growth and resilience following adversity. Participants were assessed monthly for a period of two years on a wide range of measures, including character strengths, health, well-being, and life events.
The illumination of whether, how, and for whom adversity leads to character growth are the central objectives of this empirical project. The question of whether adversity leads to character growth focuses on the domains in which growth is most likely to manifest, and whether it differs by adversity; how refers to the processes through which character growth manifests following adversity (e.g., meaning-making); who focuses on individual characteristics that may increase or decrease the likelihood of experiencing growth following adversity (e.g., social support).
These publications provide an overview of key findings arising from this project:
Dey, N. E. Y., Infurna, F. J., & Grimm, K. J. (in press). Does religiosity/spirituality promote positive well-being for middle-aged adults in the context of monthly adversity? International Journal of Behavioral Development.
Infurna, F. J., Staben, O. E., Gardner, M. J., Grimm, K. J., & Luthar, S. S. (2023). The accumulation of adversity in midlife: Effects on depressive symptoms, life satisfaction and character strengths. Psychology and Aging, 38, 230-246.
Infurna, F. J., Luthar, S. S., & Grimm, K. J. (2022). Lifetime adversity in the context of monthly adversity and psychological well-being in midlife: Evidence of cumulative disadvantage, but not steeling effects of lifetime adversity. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 77, 1394-1405.
Infurna, F. J., Luthar, S. S., & Grimm, K. J. (2022) Investigating post-traumatic growth in midlife using an intensive longitudinal research design: Post-traumatic growth is not as prevalent as previously considered. European Journal of Personality, 36, 576-596.
Social Intelligence Training
In 2018, the research team completed a randomized controlled trial that focused on the effectiveness of a social intelligence training program on improving social relationship quality and mental and physical health in middle-aged adults. The social intelligence training program is an interactive intervention that is delivered online to participants. The main purpose of this study was to examine the helpfulness of educational materials provided through a set of brief, daily audio-visual programs that are designed to further social understanding. The study aims to help us understand how social learning programs may benefit adults seeking to improve the quality of their living, a helpful new way to promote peoples’ health, well-being and social relatedness.
These publications provide an overview of key findings arising from this project:
Castro, S. A., Infurna, F. J., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Waldron, V., & Zautra, E. (2023). Are daily well-being and emotional reactivity to stressors modifiable in midlife? Evidence from a randomized clinical trial of an online social intelligence training program. Prevention Science, 24, 841-851.
Castro, S. A., Infurna, F. J., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Waldron, V., & Zautra, E. (2019). Can an online curriculum improve the daily socio-emotional lives of middle-aged adults exposed to childhood trauma? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 118, 65-76.
In 2018, the research team completed a randomized controlled trial that focused on the effectiveness of a social intelligence training program on improving social relationship quality and mental and physical health in middle-aged adults. The social intelligence training program is an interactive intervention that is delivered online to participants. The main purpose of this study was to examine the helpfulness of educational materials provided through a set of brief, daily audio-visual programs that are designed to further social understanding. The study aims to help us understand how social learning programs may benefit adults seeking to improve the quality of their living, a helpful new way to promote peoples’ health, well-being and social relatedness.
These publications provide an overview of key findings arising from this project:
Castro, S. A., Infurna, F. J., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Waldron, V., & Zautra, E. (2023). Are daily well-being and emotional reactivity to stressors modifiable in midlife? Evidence from a randomized clinical trial of an online social intelligence training program. Prevention Science, 24, 841-851.
Castro, S. A., Infurna, F. J., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Waldron, V., & Zautra, E. (2019). Can an online curriculum improve the daily socio-emotional lives of middle-aged adults exposed to childhood trauma? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 118, 65-76.